Feminisation of Agriculture in India

Introduction

This growing involvement of women in agricultural activities is known as the Feminisation of Agriculture. However, an important question remains: Does increased participation in agriculture mean that women are becoming economically independent? The answer is not necessarily. Despite their growing contribution, many women farmers continue to work without receiving wages, owning agricultural land or having access to institutional credit and modern farming technology.

According to the Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) 2023–24, women’s participation in agriculture has increased significantly. Nevertheless, the increasing number of women working in agriculture has not always translated into better income, recognition or decision-making power. Therefore, feminisation of agriculture must be understood not only as an increase in women’s participation but also as an important issue of gender equality, rural development and inclusive economic growth.

What is Feminisation of Agriculture?

Feminisation of agriculture refers to the increasing participation and responsibility of women in agricultural activities, particularly when men migrate from rural areas to urban centres or shift towards non-agricultural employment.

Women contribute to almost every stage of agricultural production, including:

• Preparing agricultural fields and sowing seeds.
• Transplantation and weeding.
• Harvesting and post-harvest management.
• Livestock rearing and dairy activities.
• Poultry farming and fisheries.
• Seed preservation and storage.
• Food processing and agricultural marketing.

However, their contribution often remains unrecognised because agricultural work performed by women within family-owned farms is frequently treated as unpaid household assistance.

What is the Present Status of Women in Agriculture in India?

Women play a crucial role in India’s agricultural economy. Their participation has increased over the years, particularly in rural areas where agriculture remains a major source of livelihood. According to the figures highlighted in the PLFS-based discussion, women account for more than 42% of India’s agricultural workforce.

Let’s understand the major trends.

A. Increasing Participation of Women

• Women now constitute a significant proportion of India’s agricultural workforce. Their involvement has increased because of male migration, changing rural employment patterns and the growing importance of women’s contribution to household income.
• Nearly two out of three rural women are engaged in agricultural activities, highlighting the importance of agriculture in rural women’s livelihoods.

B. Rising Number of Unpaid Women Workers

• One of the biggest concerns is the increasing number of women working as unpaid family workers.
• The figures provided in the source material indicate that the number of unpaid women agricultural workers increased from 23.6 million to 59.1 million over the reported period.
• This means that although women are contributing more to agricultural production, many are not receiving independent wages for their work.

C. Regional Concentration

• Women’s dependence on agriculture is particularly high in states such as Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.
• In these states, more than 80% of women workers are engaged in agriculture, while a significant proportion continue to work without direct monetary compensation.
• This highlights the need for region-specific policies to improve women’s employment opportunities and economic independence.

D. Increasing Recognition of Women Farmers

• Government initiatives, Self-Help Groups (SHGs), Farmer Producer Organisations (FPOs) and agricultural credit facilities are creating opportunities for women to participate in agricultural decision-making.
• However, access to these opportunities remains uneven, particularly among women who do not possess formal land ownership documents.

What are the Major Causes of Feminisation of Agriculture in India?

The increasing participation of women in agriculture is the result of several economic, social and demographic factors.

1. Male Out-Migration

• Male migration is one of the most important reasons behind the feminisation of agriculture.

Many men migrate from villages to cities in search of better-paying employment in sectors such as:

• Construction.
• Transportation.
• Manufacturing.
• Services.
• Government and private-sector employment.

• As a result, women are increasingly responsible for managing agricultural activities and maintaining family farms.
• In many rural households, women have become the primary agricultural workers while men contribute through remittances earned outside the village.

2. Growth of Contract Farming

• The expansion of commercial agriculture and contract farming has also increased women’s participation.

Certain agricultural sectors, including floriculture, horticulture, tea and coffee plantations, require considerable labour for activities such as:

• Picking and sorting.
• Grading and packaging.
• Transplantation.
• Weeding.
• Harvesting.

• Women are frequently employed in these activities because of their agricultural skills and availability as a rural workforce.
• However, they often receive lower wages and have limited bargaining power.

3. Patriarchal Social Structure

• Traditional gender roles continue to influence agricultural employment in rural India.
• In many households, men are considered the primary farmers, while women’s agricultural contribution is viewed as an extension of their domestic responsibilities.

Consequently:

• Women’s agricultural work is often undervalued.
• Their participation in farm-related decisions remains limited.
• Men are more likely to be recognised as landowners.
• Women have less control over agricultural income.

Such social attitudes prevent women from receiving recognition as independent farmers.

4. Limited Alternative Employment Opportunities

• Women in rural areas often face barriers while accessing non-agricultural employment.

Some of the major reasons include:

• Limited access to education and vocational training.
• Lack of transportation facilities.
• Restricted mobility due to social customs.
• Household responsibilities.
• Limited availability of suitable employment.

As a result, agriculture becomes one of the most accessible livelihood opportunities for many rural women.

5. Increasing Importance of Allied Agricultural Activities

• Women are increasingly involved in activities beyond traditional crop cultivation.
• Dairy farming, poultry, fisheries, animal husbandry, food processing and horticulture provide additional income opportunities.
• These activities also create opportunities for women-led enterprises and rural entrepreneurship.

4. What are the Major Challenges Faced by Women Farmers in India?

• Despite their increasing contribution, women farmers continue to face several structural and institutional barriers.
• A useful way to remember these challenges is the mnemonic WOMEN.

W – Wage Discrimination

• Women agricultural workers often receive lower wages than men for similar agricultural activities.
• Gender-based wage differences affect their income, savings and ability to achieve financial independence.
• The problem becomes more serious for women working as casual agricultural labourers, where employment opportunities and wages are often uncertain.
• Impact: Wage discrimination reinforces economic inequality and increases women’s dependence on other family members.

O – Omission from Decision-Making

• Women perform several agricultural activities but are frequently excluded from important decisions concerning farming.

For example, they may have limited participation in decisions regarding:

• Selection of crops and seeds.
• Purchase of fertilisers and pesticides.
• Agricultural investments.
• Crop insurance.
• Marketing and selling of produce.
• Access to institutional credit.

• Agricultural extension services also do not always reach women effectively.
• This creates a gap between women’s agricultural responsibilities and their decision-making authority.

M – Machinery and Technology Mismatch

Agricultural machinery is not always designed keeping women’s physical requirements and operational needs in mind.

Women often face difficulties accessing and operating:

• Tractors.
• Harvesters.
• Threshers.
• Seed drills.
• Other modern agricultural equipment.

The problem is further aggravated by limited technical training, financial constraints and inadequate access to agricultural machinery.

Solution: Gender-friendly agricultural equipment, custom hiring centres and practical training can improve women’s productivity.

E – Entrenched Domestic Double Burden

Women farmers frequently perform agricultural activities alongside unpaid household responsibilities.

Their daily responsibilities may include:

• Cooking and cleaning.
• Collecting water and fuel.
• Looking after children.
• Caring for elderly family members.
• Managing livestock.
• Working in agricultural fields.

This creates a double burden of productive and reproductive work.

The resulting time poverty limits their ability to participate in training programmes, agricultural markets and community-level decision-making.

N – Negation of Land and Identity Rights

• Land ownership is one of the most important issues affecting women’s empowerment in agriculture.
• Although women contribute significantly to agricultural production, many do not have legal ownership of the land they cultivate.
• According to the figures provided in the source material, women own only around 13–14% of land holdings.

Without formal land ownership, women may face difficulties accessing:

• Institutional agricultural credit.
• Crop insurance.
• Government agricultural schemes.
• Compensation for crop losses.
• Agricultural subsidies.
• Farmer-related identity documents.

Therefore, recognising women as independent farmers is essential for ensuring their economic and social empowerment.

Government Initiatives for Women Farmers in India

The Government of India has introduced several programmes and institutional mechanisms to improve women’s participation in agriculture and rural development.

Some important initiatives are discussed below.

1. Mahila Kisan Sashaktikaran Pariyojana (MKSP)

The Mahila Kisan Sashaktikaran Pariyojana is an initiative under the Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana – National Rural Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NRLM).

Its primary objective is to empower women farmers by improving their participation in sustainable agriculture and enhancing their livelihood opportunities.

Major objectives:

• Recognising women as farmers.
• Improving agricultural productivity.
• Promoting sustainable agricultural practices.
• Providing technical knowledge and training.
• Strengthening women’s participation in agriculture-related institutions.

2. Kisan Credit Card (KCC) Scheme

The Kisan Credit Card scheme provides farmers with access to institutional credit for agricultural and allied activities.

Women farmers who meet the applicable eligibility requirements can benefit from the scheme.

It helps provide financial support for:

• Crop cultivation.
• Purchase of agricultural inputs.
• Allied agricultural activities.
• Working capital requirements.

However, women without land ownership or recognised cultivation rights may face difficulties accessing formal credit.

3. Self-Help Groups (SHGs)

Self-Help Groups have emerged as an important instrument of women’s economic empowerment in rural India.

Through SHGs, women can collectively save money, access credit and develop income-generating activities.

Their contributions include:

• Promoting financial inclusion.
• Supporting rural entrepreneurship.
• Encouraging collective marketing.
• Improving access to microfinance.
• Developing leadership and decision-making skills.

SHGs also help women establish small businesses related to dairy, poultry, food processing and agricultural products.

4. National Rural Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NRLM)

• DAY-NRLM aims to reduce rural poverty by promoting sustainable livelihood opportunities through community institutions, particularly women’s Self-Help Groups.
• It supports women through financial inclusion, capacity building, skill development and enterprise promotion.

5. Formation and Promotion of Farmer Producer Organisations (FPOs)

FPOs help small and marginal farmers collectively undertake agricultural and business activities.

Women-led FPOs can improve their access to:

• Agricultural inputs.
• Modern technology.
• Credit facilities.
• Storage and processing infrastructure.
• Better markets.
• Collective bargaining opportunities.

6. Other Important Supporting Initiatives

How Can Women Farmers Be Empowered in India?

Increasing women’s participation in agriculture is not sufficient. The focus must shift towards improving their ownership rights, income, productivity and decision-making power.

A useful mnemonic to remember the way forward is GROW.

G – Guarantee Better Market Access

Women farmers should receive better access to domestic and international agricultural markets.

The following steps can help:

• Strengthening women-led FPOs.
• Improving rural transportation and storage facilities.
• Promoting direct marketing.
• Providing training in agricultural processing and packaging.
• Encouraging women entrepreneurs to export agricultural products.
• Supporting women-led enterprises in tea, spices, dairy and organic products.

Digital agricultural marketing platforms such as e-NAM can also help women access wider markets and improve price transparency.

R – Resource Rights and Land Reforms

Land ownership is essential for women’s economic independence.

The government should encourage:

• Joint land ownership between spouses.
• Individual land titles for women.
• Better inheritance rights awareness.
• Easier access to agricultural credit.
• Inclusion of women in agricultural insurance.
• Recognition of women as independent cultivators.

Strengthening women’s access to productive resources will also improve their participation in agricultural decision-making.

O – Open Digital Gateways

Digital technology can play an important role in transforming women’s participation in agriculture.

Initiatives should focus on:

• Digital literacy programmes.
• Mobile-based agricultural advisory services.
• Online access to government schemes.
• Digital financial services.
• Weather and crop information.
• Online agricultural marketing.

Platforms and initiatives such as e-NAM, BHASHINI and Jugalbandi can help reduce language and information barriers.

Voice-based agricultural advisory services can be particularly useful for women with limited digital literacy.

W – Well-being and Social Support

Women’s productivity cannot improve without addressing their household responsibilities and working conditions.

Some important measures include:

• Establishing childcare and crèche facilities near agricultural workplaces.
• Improving access to drinking water and sanitation.
• Promoting clean cooking energy.
• Providing safe transportation facilities.
• Ensuring equal wages.
• Expanding healthcare and social security.
• Increasing women’s participation in Panchayati Raj Institutions.

Reducing unpaid domestic work will allow women to devote more time to productive activities, skill development and leadership opportunities.

Role of NABARD in Empowering Women Farmers

• The National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) plays an important role in strengthening rural livelihoods and promoting women’s economic empowerment.
• Its initiatives and institutional support contribute to the development of women-led rural enterprises and agricultural activities.

Some important areas include:

1. SHG-Bank Linkage Programme: It promotes financial inclusion by connecting Self-Help Groups with formal banking institutions.

2. Rural Entrepreneurship Development: NABARD supports skill development and entrepreneurship among rural communities, including women.

3. Farmer Producer Organisations: Support for FPO development helps small farmers access markets, technology and better bargaining opportunities.

4. Sustainable Agriculture: Support for sustainable farming and natural resource management can improve the livelihoods of rural women.

5. Financial Literacy: Financial awareness programmes help women understand banking, savings, credit and financial management.

For NABARD Grade A aspirants, the role of NABARD in promoting financial inclusion, SHGs, FPOs and rural livelihoods is particularly important.

Why is Women's Empowerment in Agriculture Important for India?

Empowering women farmers is not simply a matter of gender equality. It is also essential for agricultural development and India’s long-term economic growth.

A. Improves Agricultural Productivity

Women contribute significantly to agricultural production. Providing them with modern technology, training and financial resources can improve farm productivity.

B. Reduces Rural Poverty

Access to independent income and productive resources can improve household living standards and reduce rural poverty.

C. Strengthens Food and Nutritional Security

• Women play an important role in food production, household nutrition, livestock management and food processing.
• Empowering women can strengthen household food security and nutritional outcomes.

D. Promotes Inclusive Rural Development

Women-led SHGs, FPOs and rural enterprises create employment opportunities and encourage community participation.

E. Supports Sustainable Agriculture

• Women often play an important role in seed preservation, biodiversity conservation, livestock management and traditional agricultural knowledge.
• Recognising their contribution can support climate-resilient and sustainable agricultural practices.

Conclusion

The feminisation of agriculture reflects an important transformation in India’s rural economy. Women are increasingly taking responsibility for agricultural production, livestock management and rural livelihoods. However, greater participation does not automatically translate into empowerment.

The real challenge is to move beyond recognising women as agricultural labourers and establish their identity as independent farmers, entrepreneurs and decision-makers. For this, India must address gender-based wage discrimination, improve land ownership rights, strengthen access to institutional credit, promote modern agricultural technology and expand women’s participation in agricultural institutions.

A gender-inclusive agricultural development model will not only improve the economic position of women but also contribute to higher agricultural productivity, rural prosperity and sustainable development. Ultimately, empowering women farmers is not merely a social responsibility; it is an economic necessity for building a Viksit Bharat.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q1. What is feminisation of agriculture?

Feminisation of agriculture refers to the increasing participation and responsibility of women in agricultural activities, particularly due to male migration towards non-agricultural employment.

Q2. What percentage of India's agricultural workforce comprises women?

According to the figures highlighted in the supplied PLFS-based material, women account for more than 42% of India’s agricultural workforce.

Q3. What are the major causes of feminisation of agriculture?

The major causes include male out-migration, growth of contract farming, patriarchal social structures, limited alternative employment opportunities and increasing participation in allied agricultural activities.

Q4. What are the major challenges faced by women farmers?

Women farmers face wage discrimination, unpaid family work, limited land ownership, inadequate access to institutional credit, lack of modern technology and exclusion from agricultural decision-making.

Q5. What is Mahila Kisan Sashaktikaran Pariyojana?

MKSP is an initiative under DAY-NRLM that aims to empower women farmers by improving their participation in sustainable agriculture, productivity and livelihood activities.

Q6. How do SHGs help women farmers?

SHGs improve financial inclusion, access to credit, savings, entrepreneurship, collective marketing and leadership opportunities among rural women.

Q7. Why is land ownership important for women farmers?

Land ownership strengthens women’s legal identity as farmers and improves their ability to access institutional credit, crop insurance, government schemes and agricultural decision-making.

Q8. What is the role of NABARD in women's agricultural empowerment?

NABARD supports women’s economic empowerment through SHG-Bank Linkage, rural entrepreneurship, financial inclusion, FPO development and sustainable livelihood initiatives.